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THE PHENOMENON OF SCIENCE
a cybernetic approach to human evolution
by Valentin F. Turchin
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Copyright ©: [5]Valentin Turchin. This book is copyrighted material. If you
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____________________________________________________________________________
Translated by Brand Frentz
New York * Columbia University Press * 1977
_________________________________________________________________________________
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Turchin, Valentin Fedorovich.
The phenomenon of science.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Science--Philosophy. 2 Evolution 3. Cosmology. 4. Cybernetics. I. Title.
Q175.T7913 501 77-4330
ISBN 0-231-03983-2
New York * Columbia University Press * Guildford, Surrey
Copyright (c) 1977 by Columbia University Press All Rights Reserved
Printed in the United States of America
_________________________________________________________________________________
CONTENTS
* [8]Foreword[9], by Loren Graham
* [10]Preface
[11]Chapter One. the Initial Stages of Evolution
* [12]The Basic Law of Evolution
* [13]The Chemical Era
* [14]Cybernetics
* [15]Discrete and Continuous Systems
* [16]The Reliability of Discrete Systems
* [17]Information
* [18]The Neuron
* [19]The Nerve Net
* [20]The Simple Reflex (Irritability)
* [21]The Complex Reflex
[22]Chapter Two. Hierarchical Structures
* [23]The Concept of the Concept
* [24]Discriminators and Classifiers
* [25]Hierarchies of Concepts
* [26]How the Hierarchy Emerges
* [27]Some Comments on Real Hierarchies
* [28]The World through the Eyes of a Frog
* [29]Fragments of a System of Concepts
* [30]The Goal and Regulation
* [31]How Regulation Emerges
* [32]Representations
* [33]Memory
* [34]The Hierarchy of Goals and Plans
* [35]Structural and Functional Diagrams
* [36]The Transition to Phenomenological Descriptions
* [37]Definition of the Complex Reflex
[38]Chapter Three. On the Path Toward the Human Being
* [39]The Metasystem Transition
* [40]Control of the Reflex
* [41]The Reflex as a Functional Concept
* [42]Why Associations of Representations are Needed
* [43]Evocation by Complement
* [44]Spots and Lines
* [45]The Conditioned Reflex and Learning
* [46]Modeling
* [47]Cognition of the World
[48]Chapter Four. the Human Being
* [49]Control of Associating
* [50]Play
* [51]Making Tools
* [52]Imagination, Planning, Overcoming Instinct
* [53]The Internal Teacher
* [54]The Funny and the Beautiful
* [55]Language
* [56]Creation of Language
* [57]Language As a Means of Modeling
* [58]Self-Knowledge
* [59]A Continuation of the Brain
* [60]Social Integration
* [61]The Super-Being
[62]Chapter Five. From Step to Step
* [63]Material and Spiritual Culture
* [64]The Stairway Effect
* [65]The Scale of the Metasystem Transition
* [66]Tools for Producing Tools
* [67]The Lower Paleolithic
* [68]The Upper Paleolithic
* [69]The Neolithic Revolution
* [70]The Age of Metal
* [71]The Industrial Revolutions
* [72]The Quantum of Development
* [73]The Evolution of Thought
[74]Chapter Six. Logical Analysis of Language
* [75]About Concepts Again
* [76]Attributes and Relations
* [77]Aristotelian Logic
* [78]Hegel's Dialectic
* [79]Mathematical Logic
* [80]Objects and Statements
* [81]Logical Connectives
* [82]Predicates
* [83]Quantifiers
* [84]The Connective "Such That"
* [85]The Physical Object and the Logical Object
* [86]Functions
* [87]Syntax and Semantics
* [88]Logical Analysis of Language
[89]Chapter Seven. Language and Thinking
* [90]What Do We Know About Thinking?
* [91]Linguistic Activity
* [92]The Brain as a "Black Box"
* [93]Affirmation and Negation
* [94]The Phenomenological Definition of Semantics
* [95]The Logical Concept
* [96]The Structural Approach
* [97]Two Systems
* [98]Concept "Pilings"
* [99]The Sapir-Whorf Conception
* [100]Substance
* [101]The Objectivization of Time
* [102]Linguistic Relativity
* [103]The Metasystem Transition in Language
* [104]The Concept-Construct
* [105]The Thinking of Humans and Animals
[106]Chapter Eight. Primitive Thinking
* [107]The System Aspect of Culture
* [108]The Savage State and Civilization
* [109]The Metasystem Transition in Linguistic Activity
* [110]The Magic of Words
* [111]Spirits and the Like
* [112]The Trash Heap of Representations
* [113]Belief and Knowledge
* [114]The Conservatism of Precritical Thinking
* [115]The Emergence of Civilization
[116]Chapter Nine. Mathematics Before the Greeks
* [117]Nature's Mistake
* [118]Counting and Measurement
* [119]Number Notation
* [120]The Place-Value System
* [121]Applied Arithmetic
* [122]The Ancients' Knowledge of Geometry
* [123]A Bird's Eye View of Arithmetic
* [124]Reverse Movement in a Model
* [125]Solving Equations
* [126]The Formula
[127]Chapter Ten. From Thales to Euclid
* [128]Proof
* [129]The Classical Period
* [130]Plato's Philosophy
* [131]What is Mathematics?
* [132]Precision in Comparing Quantities
* [133]The Reliability of Mathematical Assertions
* [134]in Search of Axioms
* [135]Concerning the Axioms of Arithmetic and Logic
* [136]Platonism in Retrospect
[137]Chapter Eleven. From Euclid To Descartes
* [138]Number and Quantity
* [139]Geometric Algebra
* [140]Archimedes and Apollonius
* [141]The Decline of Greek Mathematics
* [142]Arithmetic Algebra
* [143]Italy, Sixteenth Century
* [144]Letter Symbolism
* [145]What Did Descartes Do?
* [146]The Relation As An Object
* [147]Descartes and Fermat
* [148]The Path to Discovery
[149]Chapter Twelve. From Descartes to Bourbaki
* [150]Formalized Language
* [151]The Language Machine
* [152]Four Types of Linguistic Activity
* [153]Science and Philosophy
* [154]Formalization and the Metasystem Transition
* [155]The Leitmotif of the New Mathematics
* [156]"Nonexistent" Objects
* [157]The Hierarchy of theories
* [158]The Axiomatic Method
* [159]Metamathematics
* [160]The Formalization of Set theory
* [161]Bourbaki's Treatise
[162]Chapter Thirteen. Science and Metascience
* [163]Experimental Physics
* [164]The Scientific Method
* [165]The Role of General Principles
* [166]Criteria for the Selection of theories
* [167]The Physics of the Microworld
* [168]The Uncertainty Relation
* [169]Graphic and Symbolic Models
* [170]The Collapse of Determinism
* [171]"Crazy" theories and Metascience
[172]Chapter Fourteen. the Phenomenon of Science
* [173]The Highest Level of the Hierarchy
* [174]Science and Production
* [175]The Growth of Science
* [176]The Formalization of Scientific Language
* [177]The Human Being and the Machine
* [178]Scientific Control of Society
* [179]Science and Morality
* [180]The Problem of the Supreme Good
* [181]Spiritual Values
* [182]The Human Being in the Universe
* [183]The Divergence of Trajectories
* [184]Ethics and Evolution
* [185]The Will to Immortality
* [186]Integration and Freedom
* [187]Questions, Questions . . .
_________________________________________________________________________________
Foreword VALENTIN TURCHIN presents in The Phenomenon of Science an evolutionary
scheme of the universe--one that begins on the level of individual atoms and
molecules, continues through the origin of life and the development of plants and
animals, reaches the level of man and self-consciousness, and develops further in
the intellectual creations of man, particularly in scientific knowledge. He does
not see this development as a purposeful or preordained one, since he accepts
entirely the Darwinian law of trial and error. Selection occurs within a set of
random variations, and survival of forms is a happenstance of the relationship
between particular forms and particular environments. Thus, there are no goals in
evolution. Nonetheless, there are discernible patterns and, indeed, there is a
''law of evolution" by which one can explain the emergence of forms capable of
activities which are truly novel. This law is one of the formation of higher and
higher levels of cybernetic control. The nodal points of evolution for Turchin
are the moments when the most recent and highest controlling subsystem of a large
system is integrated into a metasystem and brought under a yet higher form of
control. Examples of such transitions are the origin of life, the emergence of
individual selfconsciousness, the appearance of language, and the development of
the scientific method.
Many authors in the last century have attempted to sketch schemes of cosmic
evolution, and Turchin's version will evoke memories in the minds of his readers.
The names of Spencer, Haeckel, Huxley, Engels, Morgan, Bergson, Teilhard de
Chardin, Vernadsky, Bogdanov, Oparin, Wiener and many others serve as labels for
concepts similar to some of those discussed by Turchin. Furthermore, it is clear
that Turchin knows many of these authors, borrows from some of them, and cites
them for their achievements. It is probably not an accident that the title of
Turchin's book, ''The Phenomenon of Science,'' closely parallels the title of
Teilhard's, ''The Phenomenon of Man.'' Yet it is equally clear that Turchin does
not agree entirely with any of these authors, and his debts to them are
fragmentary and selective. Many of them assigned a place either to vitalistic or
to theological elements in their evolutionary schemes, both of which Turchin
rejects. Others relied heavily on mechanistic, reductionist principles which left
no room for the qualitatively new levels of biological and social orders that are
so important to Turchin. And all of them--with the possible exception of Wiener,
who left no comprehensive analysis of evolution--wrote at a time when it was
impossible to incorporate information theory into their accounts.
The two aspects of Turchin's scheme of cosmic evolution which distinguish it from
its well-known predecessors are its heavy reliance on cybernetics and its
inclusion of the development of scientific thought in evolutionary development
that begins with the inorganic world. The first aspect is one which is intimately
tied to Turchin's own field of specialization, since for many years he was a
leader in the theory and design of Soviet computer systems and is the author of a
system of computer language. Turchin believes that he gained insights from this
experience that lead to a much more rigorous discussion of evolution than those
of his predecessors. The second aspect of Turchin's account--the treatment of
scientific concepts as ''objects'' governed by the same evolutionary regularities
as chemical and biological entities--is likely to raise objections among some
readers. Although this approach is also not entirely original--one thinks of some
of the writings of Stephen Toulmin, for example--I know of no other author who
has attempted to integrate science so thoroughly into a scheme of the evolution
of physical and biological nature. Taking a thoroughly cybernetic view, Turchin
maintains that it is not the ''substance'' of the entities being described that
matters, but their principles of organization.
For the person seeking to analyze the essential characteristics of Turchin's
system of explanation, two of his terms will attract attention:
''representation'' and ''metasystem transition.'' Without a clear understanding
of what he means by these terms, one cannot comprehend the overall developmental
picture he presents. A central issue for critics will be whether a clear
understanding of these terms can be gained from the material presented here.
One of the most difficult tasks for Mr. Frentz, the translator, was connected
with one of these central terms. This problem of finding an English word for the
Russian term predstavlenie was eventually resolved by using the term
''representation.'' In my opinion, the difficulty for the translator was not
simply a linguistic one, but involved a fundamental, unresolved philosophical
issue. The term predstavlenie is used by Turchin to mean ''an image or a
representation of a part of reality.'' It plays a crucial role in describing the
situations in which an organism compares a given circumstance with one that is
optimal from the standpoint of its survival. Thus, Turchin, after introducing
this term, speaks of a hypothetical animal that ''loves a temperature of 16
degrees Centigrade'' and has a representation of this wonderful situation in the
form of the frequency of impulses of neurons. The animal, therefore, attempts to
bring the given circumstances closer and closer into correspondence with its
neuronal representation by moving about in water of different temperatures.
This same term predstavlenie is also used to describe human behavior where the
term ''mental image'' would seem to be a more felicitous translation. If we look
in a good Russian-English dictionary, we shall find predstavlenie defined as
''presentation, idea, notion, representation.'' At first Dr. Turchin, who knows
English well and was consulted by the translator, preferred the translation
"notion". Yet it seemed rather odd, even vaguely anthropomorphic, to attribute a
''notion'' to a primitive organism, an amoeba, or even a fish. On the other hand,
the term ''representation'' seemed too rudimentary for human behavior where
''idea'' or ''mental image" was clearly preferable. This difficulty arose from
the effort to carry a constant term through evolutionary stages in which Turchin
sees the emergence of qualitatively new properties. The problem is, therefore,
only secondarily one of language. The basic issue is the familiar one of
reductionism and nonreductionism in descriptions of biological and psychological
phenomena. Since the Russian language happens to possess a term that fits these
different stages better than English, we might do better to retain the Russian
predstavlenie. In this text for a wide circle of English readers, however, the
translator chose the word ''representation,'' probably the best that can be done.
The difficulties of understanding the term ''metasystem transition'' arise from
its inclusion of a particular interpretation of logical attributes and relations.
Turchin believes that it is impossible to describe the process by which a
particular system develops into a metasystem in the terms of classical logic.
Classical logic, he says, describes only attributes, not relations. For an
adequate description of relations, one must rely on the Hegelian dialectic, which
permits one to see that the whole of a metasystem is greater than the sum of its
subsystems. The Hegelian concept of quantitative change leading to qualitative
change is thus not only explicitly contained within Turchin's scheme, but plays
an essential role in it. The behavior of human society is qualitatively different
from the behavior of individual humans. And social integration, through the ''law
of branching growth of the penultimate level,'' may lead eventually to a concept
of ''The Super-Being.''
These concepts show some affinities to Marxist dialectical materialism, in which
a similar differentiation of qualitatively distinct evolutionary levels has long
been a characteristic feature. The British scientist J. D. Bernal once went so
far as to claim that this concept of dialectical levels of natural laws was
uniquely Marxist, when he wrote about ''the truth of different laws for different
levels, an essentially Marxist idea.'' However, many non-Marxists have also
advanced such a view of irreducible levels of laws; one should therefore be
careful about terming a system of thought Marxist simply because it possesses
this feature. Most Marxists would reject, at a minimum, Turchin's discussion of
the concept of the Super-Being (although even in early Soviet Marxism
''God-building'' had a subrosa tradition). In Turchin's case we are probably
justified in linking the inclusion of Hegelian concepts in his interpretation of
nature to the education in philosophy he received in the Soviet Union. Soviet
Marxism was probably one of several sources of Turchin's philosophic views;
others are cybernetics and the thought of such earlier writers on cosmic
evolution as Chardin and Vernadsky.
In view of the links one can see between the ideas of Turchin and Marxism, it is
particularly interesting to notice that Turchin is now in political difficulty in
the Soviet Union. Before I give some of the details of his political biography,
however, I shall note that in this essentially nonpolitical manuscript Turchin
gives a few hints of possible social implications of his interpretation. He
remarks that the cybernetic view he is presenting places great emphasis on
''control'' and that it draws an analogy between society and a multicellular
organism. He then observes, ''This point of view conceals in itself a great
danger that in vulgarized form it can easily lead to the conception of a
fascist-type totalitarian state.'' This possibility of a totalitarian state, of
whatever type, is clearly repugnant to Turchin, and his personal experience is a
witness that he is willing to risk his own security in order to struggle against
such a state. As for his interpretation of social evolution, he contends that
''the possibility that a theory can be vulgarized is in no way an argument
against its truth.'' In the last sections of his book he presents suggestions for
avoiding such vulgarizations while still working for greater social integration.
Turchin is wrestling in this last part of his interpretation with a problem that
has recently plagued many thinkers in Western Europe and America as well: Can one
combine a scientific explanation of man and society with a commitment to
individual freedom and social justice? Turchin is convinced that such combination
of goals is possible; indeed, he sees this alliance as imperative, since he
believes there is no conceptual alternative to the scientific worldview and no
ethical alternative to the maintenance of individual freedom. It is the
steadfastness of his support of science that will seem surprising to some of his
readers in the West, where science is often seen as only a partial worldview, one
to be supplemented with religious or nonscientific ethical or esthetic
principles. Turchin, however, believes that humans can be explained within an
entirely naturalistic framework. His belief that ethical and altruistic modes of
behavior can emerge from an evolutionary scheme is, therefore, one that brings
him in contact with recent writers in the West on sociobiology, physical
anthropology, and evolutionary behavior. His emphases on information theory, on
irreducible levels, and on the dangers of vulgarizations of scientific
explanations of human behavior while nonetheless remaining loyal to science may
make contributions to these already interesting discussions.
________________
Valentin Fedorovich Turchin, born in 1931, holds a doctor's degree in the
physical and mathematical sciences. He worked in the Soviet science center in
Obninsk, near Moscow, in the Physics and Energetics Institute and then later
became a senior scientific researcher in the Institute of Applied Mathematics of
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. In this institute he specialized in
information theory and the computer sciences. While working in these fields he
developed a new computer language that was widely applied in the USSR, the
''Refal'' system. After 1973 he was the director of a laboratory in the Central
Scientific-Research Institute for the Design of Automated Construction Systems.
During his years of professional employment Dr. Turchin published over 65 works
in his field. In sum, in the 1960s and early 1970s, Valentin Turchin was
considered one of the leading computer specialists in the Soviet Union.
Dr. Turchin's political difficulties began in 1968, when he was one of hundreds
of scientists and other liberal intellectuals who signed letters protesting the
crackdown on dissidents in the Soviet Union preceding and accompanying the
Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia. In the same year he wrote an article
entitled "The Inertia of Fear'' which circulated widely in samizdat, the system
of underground transmission of manuscripts in the Soviet Union. Later the same
article was expanded into a book-length manuscript in which Dr. Turchin
criticized the vestiges of Stalinism in Soviet society and called for democratic
reform.
In September 1973 Dr. Turchin was one of the few people in the Soviet Union who
came to the defense of the prominent Soviet physicist Andrei D. Sakharov when the
dissident scientist was attacked in the Soviet press. As a result of his defense
of Sakharov, Turchin was denounced in his institute and demoted from chief of
laboratory to senior research associate. The computer scientist continued his
defense of human rights, and in July 1974, he was dismissed from the institute.
In the ensuing months Dr. Turchin found that he had been blacklisted at other
places of employment.
In the last few years Professor Turchin has been chairman of the Moscow chapter
of Amnesty International, an organization that has worked for human rights
throughout the world. When other Soviet scholars were persecuted, including
Andrei Tverdokhlebov and Sergei Kovalev, Dr. Turchin helped publicize their
plight. During this period, his wife, a mathematician, has financially supported
her husband and their two sons.
In 1974 and 1975 Dr. Turchin received invitations to teach at several American
universities, but the Soviet government refused to grant him an exit visa.
Several writers in the West speculated that he would soon be arrested and tried,
but so far he has been able to continue his activity, working within necessary
limits. His apartment has been searched by the police and he has been
interrogated.
Dr. Turchin wrote The Phenomenon of Science before these personal difficulties
began, and he did not intend it to be a political statement. Indeed, the
manuscript was accepted for publication by a leading Soviet publishing house, and
preliminary Soviet reviewers praised its quality. Publication of the book was
stopped only after Dr. Turchin was criticized on other grounds. Therefore, that
the initial publication of The Phenomenon of Science is outside the Soviet Union,
should not be seen as a result of its content, but of the nonscientific
activities of its author after it was written.
LOREN R. GRAHAM
Columbia University
June 1977
_________________________________________________________________________________
Preface
WHAT IS scientific knowledge of reality? To answer this question from a
scientific point of view means to look at the human race from outside, from outer
space so to speak. Then human beings will appear as certain combinations of
matter which perform certain actions, in particular producing some kind of words
and writing some kind of symbols. How do these actions arise in the process of
life's evolution? Can their appearance be explained on the basis of some general
principles related to the evolutionary process? What is scientific activity in
light of these general principles? These are the questions we shall attempt to
answer in this book.
Principles so general that they are applicable both to the evolution of science
and to biological evolution require equally general concepts for their
expression. Such concepts are offered by cybernetics, the science of
relationships, control, and organization in all types of objects. Cybernetic
concepts describe physicochemical, biological, and social phenomena with equal
success. It is in fact the development of cybernetics, and particularly its
successes in describing and modeling purposeful behavior and in pattern
recognition, which has made the writing of this book possible. Therefore it would
be more precise to define our subject as the cybernetic approach to science as an
object of study.
The intellectual pivot of the book is the concept of the metasystem
transition--the transition from a cybernetic system to a metasystem, which
includes a set of systems of the initial type organized and controlled in a
definite manner. I first made this concept the basis of an analysis of the
development of sign systems used by science. Then, however, it turned out that
investigating the entire process of life's evolution on earth from this point of
view permits the construction of a coherent picture governed by uniform laws.
Actually it would be better to say a moving picture, one which begins with the
first living cells and ends with present-day scientific theories and the system
of industrial production. This moving picture shows, in particular, the place of
the phenomenon of science among the other phenomena of the world and reveals the
significance of science in the overall picture of the evolution of the universe.
That is how the plan of this book arose. How convincingly this picture has been
drawn I propose to leave to the reader's judgment.
In accordance with the plan of the book, many very diverse facts and conceptions
are presented. Some of the facts are commonly known; I try to limit my discussion
of them, fitting them into the system and relating them to my basic idea. Other
facts are less wellknown, and in such cases I dwell on them in more detail. The
same is true for the conceptions; some are commonly recognized while others are
less well known and, possibly, debatable. The varied nature of the material
creates a situation where different parts of the book require different efforts
from the reader. Some parts are descriptive and easy to read, in other places it
is necessary to go deeply into quite specialized matters. Because the book is
intended for a broad range of readers and does not assume knowledge beyond the
secondary school level, I provide the necessary theoretical information in all
such cases. These pages will require a certain effort of the untrained reader.
The book gives an important place to the problems of the theory of knowledge and
logic. They are, of course, treated from a cybernetic point of view. Cybernetics
is now waging an attack on traditional philosophical epistemology, offering a new
natural-science interpretation of some of its concepts and rejecting others as
untenable. Some philosophers oppose the rise of cybernetics and consider it an
infringement on their territory. They accuse cyberneticists of making the truth
''crude'' and ''simplifying" it; they claim cyberneticists ignore the
''fundamental difference'' between different forms of the movement of matter (and
this is despite the thesis of the world's unity!). But the philosopher to whom
the possessive attitude toward various fields of knowledge is foreign should
welcome the attacks of the cyberneticists. The development of physics and
astronomy once destroyed natural philosophy, sparing philosophers of the need to
talk approximately about a subject which scientists could discuss exactly. It
appears that the development of cybernetics will do the same thing with
philosophical epistemology or, to be more cautious, with a significant part of
it. This should be nothing but gratifying. Philosophers will always have enough
concerns of their own; science rids them of some, but gives them others.
Because the book is devoted to science in toto as a definite method of
interaction between human society and its environment, it contains practically no
discussion of concrete natural-science disciplines. The presentation remains
entirely at the level of the concepts of cybernetics, logic, and mathematics,
which are equally significant for all modern science. The only exception is for
some notions of modern physics which are fundamentally important for the theory
of sign systems. A concrete analysis of science's interaction with production and
social life was also outside the scope of the problem. This is a distinct matter
to which a vast literature has been devoted; in this book I remain at the level
of general cybernetic concepts.
It is dangerous to attempt to combine a large amount of material from different
fields of knowledge into a single, whole picture; details may become distorted,
for a person cannot be a specialist in everything. Because this book attempts
precisely to create such a picture, it is very likely that specialists in the
fields of science touched on here will find omissions and inaccuracies; such is
the price which must be paid for a wide scope. But such pictures are essential.
It only remains for me to hope that this book contains nothing more than errors
in detail which can be eliminated without detriment to the overall picture.
V. F. TURCHIN
____________________________________________________________________________
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30. http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/POS/Turchap2.html#Heading9
31. http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/POS/Turchap2.html#Heading10
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